Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g., connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.

Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)

Along with Kohler and Koffka, Max Wertheimer was one of the principal proponents of Gestalt theory which emphasized higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of "grouping", i.e., characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or interpret a visual field or problem in a certain way (Wertheimer, 1922). The primary factors that determine grouping were: (1) proximity - elements tend to be grouped together according to their nearness, (2) similarity - items similar in some respect tend to be grouped together, (3) closure - items are grouped together if they tend to complete some entity, and (4) simplicity - items will be organized into simple figures according to symmetry, regularity, and smoothness. These factors were called the laws of organization and were explained in the context of perception and problem-solving.

Biography of Thorndike

Edward L.Thorndike (1874 - 1949) Connectionism

Biography

Edward Lee Thorndike, an American pioneer in comparative psychology, was born in Lowell, Massachusetts in 1874 to the family of a Methodist minister. He became interested in the field of psychology after reading

Trial and Error

Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable internal states.

Heridity and environment

Introduction

The influence of heridity and environment on the development of an individual has been viewed differently by scholoars. There are extreme views also. But the fact remains that the functioning of heredity and environment is similar to that of two eyes, two hands, two feet, two legs, etc. on the development of a person. Each one is complementary and supplementary to the other. Sometimes one plays a more dominant role and the other relatively less dominant role. For the balanced and harmonious development of an individual, a balanced and harmonious interaction between heredity and environment is very essential. Of course, each has its limitations. There is a limit ot which each can influence the development of the individual. The role of the home and the school is to ensure that optimum use is made of these limits.

Difference between growth and development

Growth

Ø  Growth refers to increase in size, height and weight etc. in other words, it concerns with the changes in particular aspect of body and behaviour.

Ø  Growth is measurable.

Ø  Maturity is the end point of growth.

Ø  Growth is physical.

Ø  Growth is narrow term used for specific type of increase in size, weight etc.

Ø  These are quantitative changes.

Ø  Growth indicates changes occurring in any part of the individual.

Development

Ø  Development refers to the changes in structure, form or shape and improvement in functioning. It implies the organization of various aspects of the body and behaviour as a whole.

Ø  Development is observable

Ø  Development does not end but continuous throughout life.

Ø  Development can be physical, social, emotional and intellectual etc.

Ø  Development is a wider and comprehensive term which covers growth also.

Ø  These are qualitative changes.

Ø  Development indicates the total integrated changes in an individual.